Augustus

Most people were tired of civil war and were therefore willing to give Octavian more power. Octavian was clever in the methods he used to gain more power. For example, in 27 BC Octavian offered to relinquish all of his powers. The result was that the Senate actually begged Octavian to stay and even gave him control of the provinces of Spain, Gaul and Syria. Octavian also held military command and consulship. The Senate bestowed on Octavian the semi-religious title "Augustus," and from then on Augustus was considered the first emperor, and his regime was known as the Principate.

Augustus reduced the significance of assemblies by handing many of their responsibilities over to the Senate. He divided Rome into regions and wards with elected officials. He also oversaw the annexation of nearby provinces in order to expand the empire until it reached natural boundaries such as mountains, rivers and deserts. Augustus started the first fire and police departments, and was involved in the creation of adequate water supply systems and grain distribution. Also, Augustus believed that civil war had damaged society, so he tried to repair Roman values. He passed laws that curbed adultury and divorce (and even banished his daughter Julia for immorality). Augustus also built many temples, revived cults and banned the worship of foreign gods.

In life, Augustus did not accept divine honors. However, after his death he was deified, as was Caesar. After Augustus, rulers came to be called "imperator." Augustus died in August AD 14 and was deified in September AD 14.

The Pax Romana

The Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, lasted roughly from 27 BC until 180 AD. This period was especially beneficial to those who already had some wealth, such as merchants, because the peace made economic, commercial and agricultural activities more stable and secure. The army used the relative calm to take the opportunity to build and improve roads, aqueducts and buildings. The roads increased mobility, which allowed more people than ever to travel freely. This period in Roman history lasted so long that people began to take the peace for granted, believing that war was a thing of the past. However, just as in the Hellenistic world, people began to wonder where and how they fit in. People experimented with different religions in an attempt to find the answer to their questions. It was in this atmosphere that Chriatianity emerged, initially as a mystery religion. However, by the end of the fourth century, the Roman Empire was also a Christian empire.

There were three main reasons why people found Christianity more appealing than the other mystery religions. First, Christianity was cheap--it did not require large monetary donations nor were there any monetary expenses involved in joining. Second, Christianity was open to all people, regardless of social status. Third, Christianity provided people with the much longed-for sense of belonging, and baptism even gave people a sense of rebirth and starting over with a new life and family.

Click here for a list of Roman Emperors who reigned during the Pax Romana.

Roman Culture

Roman Household Slavery

Forums
Housing, baths
Patron-Client
Innovations (aqueducts, roads, etc..)
Gladiators, other slaves
Roman Army

Signs of Decay

The army was no longer conquering, but rather stayed in permanent garrisons along the boundaries of the Empire. Therefore, instead of bringing in loot from the spoils of war, the army was actually causing a drain on the empire. The Empire tried to solve its economic problems by taxing the middle class, but this did not work. Also, people sometimes deserted their land because they did not want to pay the taxes. The government sometimes actually had to hire foreigners to work the land.

By the 2nd century, estates were becoming more self-sufficient. They looked to themselves instead of the government for economic ease. Some provinces and towns were also becoming more independent, and some even built walls to surround themselves.

Click here for a list of emperors who reigned during this crisis of the Empire, AD 180-284.

Constantine

Emperor Diocletian had divided the Empire into an eastern half and a western half. Each half had an emperor and each emperor had an assistant. Constantine was emperor in the east from 312-337. He came into conflict with the western emperor, who wanted to control the entire empire. Constantine's soldiers painted Christian crosses on their shields and were then victorious in battle. Constantine considered this to be an omen, and so in 313 he issued the Edict of Milan, which made it acceptable to practice any religion in the Empire. Constantine also exerted his influence in religious matters at the Council of Nicea in 325. All the bishops gathered at the Council to debate the nature of Jesus and the Trinity. in the Nicene Creed it was determined that Jesus was "begotten not made."

Constantine later won an important battle at Crysopolis, and he renamed the city Constantinople (330). Constantinople became the seat of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Empire became more firmly divided into the Latin West and the Greek East. The West became more rural and self-reliant, setting the pattern for the early middle ages. However, in the Byzantine East Constantinople flourished, as did commerce in general. Byzantines continued to refer to themselves as the Roman Empire for centuries after the Western Roman Empire had fallen, and the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist until the 1400s, close to 1,000 years after the fall of the West.

The Fall

Although some people try to credit a single event with causing the fall of the Western Roman Empire, more likely it was a combination of events that led to the fall. Some point to the Edict of Milan, when Constantine legalized Christianity, as the beginning of the fall. This was because Christian and Roman morals were incompatible.

Probably the major fator contributing to the fall of the Western Roman Empire was the influx of Germans. Germans became citizens and joined the Roman army. This led to some Germans, who were not completely loyal to Rome, reaching high positions of authority and power within the Empire. The Visigoths were a particular thorn in the side of the Romans. At the Battle of Adrianople in 378, Emperor valens was battling the Visigoths and he was killed. The death of the emperor at the hands of the Germans was a major symbolic blow to the Empire. Also, in 410, the Visigoths, led by Alaric, sacked the city of Rome. Although the fall of the city was by no means the death of the whole Wesern Empire, Rome was the symbol of the Empire, so this was also a devastating blow. Finally, in 476 the German General Odovacer killed Emperor Romulus Augustus. There were no more emperors appointed in the West, and 476 is accepted as the date of the fall of the Western Roman Empire. However, emperors were still appointed in the East until the 15th century. As stated above, the Eastern Roman Empire continued on for almost 1,000 years after the fall of the West.